Applications of psycholinguistics in language instruction

Two major applications of psycholinguistics are Task-based Instruction and Language Testing.

Task-based Instruction
Unlike foreign language instruction, task based instruction gives learners some tasks to perform, leading to communication which is the goal of language. Communication and meaning making processes operate directly.

But the limitation of this kind of instruction is the possible lack of focus on form. Bringing focus on form is the challenge of task based instruction, without compromising on the natural-ness of communication.

Therefore, selection of tasks has to strike a balance between form and content. Evaluation using the criteria of fluency, accuracy and complexity is important for the organization of the order of tasks. These three aspects are independent of each other.

Language Testing
If language performance and learning in psycholinguistics are dual code based (rule based code for performance and memory based code for faster access), and if they have to coexist, the mode of testing also has to change. One has to reflect on how processing factors affect performance. The three aspects of fluency, accuracy and complexity are important aspects.  One needs to draw from cognitive psychology to shape how we make test based generalization about real world performance.

Speaking at normal rates: How is this explained?

Native speakers draw upon lexical modes of communication. Chunks of speech are stitched together to save processing time and processing resources. This saved resources can be used to plan future utterances. Therefore, speech goes on smoothly at a normal pace.

This implies a dual coding approach to language performance and learning. Dual coding requires one to account for the use of a rule based system in economical and parsimonious performance and a memory based system for fast access. Also, we need to account for the coexistence of these to systems. 

Why does politics always use Language as a unifying factor?

"The phenomenon of linguistic imperialism and its attendant forms of socio-political exclusion is not about oppressive relations based on race or skin colour that prevailed earlier. It is about unequal power relations whereby dominated groups regardless of skin colour or nationality are coerced into complying with forces of domination and mental control. In other words, the ultimate goal of linguistic imperialism is to ensure that the dominated identify with the cultural norms of the dominator, and accept the hegemonic language." (Ndhlovu, 181)

This quote about Zimbabwe reveals a lot about the politics of language. At a more parochial level, all of us experience some sort of politics of language in our day to day language. If you are from a monolinguistic state it would identify itself on the basis of language. If it is a multilingual state, it would have its preferences towards certain languages. It will surely employ various techniques to address plurality of languages. 

Politics uses language because language synchronizes the experiences of speakers. Our experience of the world is mapped on to something. This something is called language. If world view is taken as a criterion, then no two language provides same worldview. That is why every language group has a particular world view. At a personal level, language defines your identity. Also at a social level, language defines your identity. This identity is what politics wants to appropriate. 

Ndhlovu, Finex. The Politics of Language and Nation Building in Zimbabwe

Language and Identity

Language is linked to one's identity. There are two perspectives to it- shallow and deep. The shallow perspective is at the level of identifying people according to the language one speaks. One can be placed within or without a certain language speaking group. One can choose to belong to or identify as part of a language group. At a deeper level, one's identity changes when one speaks a different language. Language is not able to say what you want to say, usually in your L2. L1 being your primary language is always available for meaningful and effective communication. It is found that Russian speakers find it easy to identify shades of blue, because Russian has different names for different shades of blue. The earlier you familiarize yourself with a language, the more comfortable you would be in that language. When we use L2, we become conscious and formal. This can be explained on the basis of ethnocultural elements. People usually associate languages with contexts-social and cultural. For example, Hindi for home communication and English for office communication. English has formality attached to it thus. Therefore, if you are forced to use English at home or Hindi at the office, you would feel uncomfortable. Also, status, degree, etc. are associated to certain languages. When English is given to non-English children at home, they get confused. Children know that English is not their first language. This affects the identity of the child.

Bilingualism

Bilingualism is defined as having the ability to use two or more languages.  
Bilingualism can be individual and collective. When an individual in a society learns a second language he/she becomes a bilingual. There are possibilities and instances where an entire society turns bilingual by learning a second language. By learning another language the status of the learner changes. 

Individual bilingualism: There are cognitive advantages. Bilingual people can do certain tasks better than others. 

Collective Bilingualism: Emigrants change the linguistic composition of a place. For example, in 7th, 8th and 9th centuries, Persian came to India. Through interaction with Hindi, a new language was born- Urdu. When people from another linguistic background reach another place (colonists, religious, etc.) they bring their culture and language along with them. When British came to India, they took over the political system and then taught us English for the sake of administration. In Belgium, Flemish and French are spoken. Flemish, spoken in Flanders resembles Dutch because of the geographical proximity to Netherlands.

Varieties of Bilingualism: 

1. Minority Languages- spoken in restricted areas (Breton in Brittany, France)
2. Non-Unique language- Basque in Spain.
3. Minority in one setting, majority in another: French in Canada, French in France

3 important variables in Bilingualism

1. Speaker
2. Language
3. Setting 

How does Bilingualism begin?

• To bridge language gap
  If people of two different languages come together, there has to be a link language or a lingua-franca. It becomes a pidgin as it begins to take shape. Later when it becomes the first language of second generation learners, it becomes a creole. There could be artificial languages like Esperanto.

How do we judge someone to be bilingual?

Someone should be able to speak 2 fully developed languages (not dialects of the same language). The person should be able to comprehend and produce both languages with proficiency. There should be comparable proficiency in both languages. Someone who knows only how to greet in a second language is not a bilingual. There are rating scales, questionnaires, fluency tests, etc. to determine these factors. 

Age, gender, intelligence, memory, context of testing, inter-linguistic distance, etc. are important factors that affect bilingualism. 

Terminology used in the study of Bilingualism

• balanced bilinguals
• unbalanced bilinguals
• equilinguals
• ambilinguals
• receptive and productive bilinguals
• additive and subtractive bilinguals
• primary and secondary bilinguals